In his comprehensive study of vampire folklore, J. Gordon Melton posits that the vampire figure emerged in various cultures as a means to explain otherwise incomprehensible social and natural phenomena. According to Melton, “The vampire figure in folklore emerged as an answer to otherwise unsolvable problems within culture. It was seen as the cause of certain unexplainable evils, accounted for the appearance of some extraordinary occurrences within the society, and was often cited as the end product of immoral behaviour” (445). This perspective suggests that vampires were not merely mythical beings but embodied the fears and moral anxieties prevalent within their respective cultures.
The traditional association of vampires with evil has deep roots in ancient folklore, often perpetuated through oral storytelling. These stories typically linked vampires to deviant behavior, reinforcing social norms by portraying those who strayed from accepted moral paths as monstrous. Melton further elaborates that “the eastern European vampire existed in a village culture as a symbol warning residents of the dangerous and devilish life outside the boundaries of approved village life” (447). This framing of the vampire as a cautionary figure underscores the role of these legends in maintaining social order by demonizing nonconformity.
Folkloric representations of vampires thus embody a broader cultural fear of the Other, with the vampire often serving as a scapegoat for societal ills that communities were unwilling or unable to fully understand. Matthew Beresford explores this idea, emphasizing the centrality of fear in the vampire’s enduring presence across cultures:
“Fear is an important factor in the survival of the vampire because, although the vampire has taken various forms in history, it is difficult to pinpoint one dominant form; fear is the main unifying feature, and therefore can be said to provide the key to the vampire’s existence. One might say that fear of the vampire’s existence is more important than its actual existence; Whether or not the demonic creature of our worst fears existed in fact, if we only looked into ourselves –and into our society- we should find the demon already there” (10-11).
Beresford’s analysis highlights how the vampire myth serves as a mirror reflecting the anxieties and repressed fears within human societies. The figure of the vampire, therefore, becomes a powerful symbol of nonconformity, embodying a wide range of societal anxieties, from sexual and religious deviance to fears of cultural otherness.
Vampires and Social Deviance
Historically, vampire legends have been intricately linked to societal fears surrounding death, sexuality, and deviance. In many cultures, vampires were associated with unusual deaths, such as suicides or deaths in childbirth, events often perceived as violations of social or religious norms. These legends frequently portrayed the vampire as a manifestation of unresolved social tensions, particularly those related to gender and sexual difference. As Beresford notes, “It is important to understand that there are two types of beings widely denoted as vampires; firstly, the supernatural, inhuman being such as demons or spectres; and secondly the revenant, a human who returns to the world of the living after death” (22).
The revenant vampire, often depicted as returning from the grave to prey on the living, is frequently linked to religious nonconformity and moral corruption. In contrast, the demon vampire, often female, is portrayed as a seductress who embodies male fears of female sexuality. For example, in ancient Greek folklore, the Empusa, a demon that assumes the form of a beautiful woman, represents a cultural fear of female sexual power. This creature, first mentioned as early as AD 40-120, was described as a “fine bride,” but one “of those beings whom the many regard as Lamias or Hobgoblins” (Beresford 20).
The Empusa, along with the related figure of the Lamia, is depicted as a sexual predator who ensnares young men, representing a profound anxiety about female sexual autonomy in a patriarchal society. This portrayal of the vampire as a symbol of female deviance reflects broader cultural concerns about the role of women and the dangers of unchecked female desire. As Beresford observes, the vampire’s role as a “demon bride” symbolizes the threat posed by women who refuse to conform to traditional gender roles, seeking power through sexuality and marriage rather than through domestic submission.
Global Variations in Vampire Legends
Vampire legends are not confined to Europe but appear in various forms across the world, each reflecting the unique cultural anxieties of the society from which they originate. In Malaysia, for instance, the Langsuyar is a primary vampire figure associated with fears surrounding childbirth and maternal failure. According to Melton, this legend tells of a young woman who, after giving birth to a stillborn child, becomes a vampire out of grief and anger (357). The Langsuyar, described as a beautiful woman with long black hair and a green robe, preys on children, symbolizing a threat to the domestic ideal of motherhood.
The Langsuyar’s transformation into a vampire represents the consequences of failing to fulfill traditional female roles, particularly the role of the mother. Her ability to lead a seemingly normal life during the day while preying on children at night reflects cultural fears about the hidden dangers posed by women who deviate from societal expectations. The methods used to defeat the Langsuyar, such as cutting her hair and nails and sealing the feeding hole in her neck, suggest a desire to re-domesticate the female vampire, forcing her back into the confines of traditional gender roles (Melton 357).
Similarly, in medieval Europe, female vampires such as the Mora in Croatia were associated with sexual deviance and were believed to prey on male victims. Melton notes that these female vampires, believed to have lived impious lives, were thought to attack men at night, leaving them drained and exhausted (540). The Mora’s vampirism, seen as a punishment for sexual deviance, reflects a paradoxical cultural attitude toward women that persists in vampire literature, where female vampires often oscillate between symbols of monstrous deviance and figures of sexual empowerment.
The Vampire as a Symbol of Religious and Cultural Deviance
The association of vampires with religious and cultural deviance is a recurring theme in many vampire legends. In Eastern European folklore, for example, vampires were often linked to individuals who died under suspicious or unusual circumstances, such as suicides or those who were excommunicated from the Church. These vampires, often revenants, were believed to return from the grave to exact vengeance on the living, particularly on those who had wronged them in life.
On the Greek island of Mykonos, it was believed that individuals who committed many sins during their lives would become vampires after death, unable to rest and condemned to haunt the places they frequented while alive (Avdikos 310). These revenant vampires, described as animalistic in appearance with large feet, swollen bellies, and red nails, symbolize the persistence of evil and the threat posed by those who defy religious norms (Avdikos 312).
The fear of excommunication and religious nonconformity is further reflected in the Greek belief that individuals who were excommunicated from the Church would become vampires, doomed to wander the earth and terrorize their communities. These vampires were said to disturb public and private spaces, engaging in antisocial behavior and causing havoc among the living (Avdikos 311). This belief underscores the vampire’s role as a symbol of religious deviance, representing the dangers posed by those who reject societal norms and the Church’s authority.
Conclusion
Vampire folklore serves as a powerful lens through which to examine the fears and anxieties of different cultures. Whether as a symbol of sexual deviance, religious nonconformity, or social otherness, the vampire embodies the cultural tensions and moral anxieties of the societies in which these legends originated. By exploring the various forms that the vampire myth has taken across different cultures and historical periods, we gain insight into the ways in which societies have grappled with issues of conformity, deviance, and the Other. As these legends demonstrate, the vampire is not just a creature of the night but a reflection of the darker aspects of human nature and the social structures that seek to control it.
Works Cited
- Avdikos, Evangelos. The Vampire: Folklore and Reality. Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
- Beresford, Matthew. From Demons to Dracula: The Creation of the Modern Vampire Myth. Reaktion Books, 2008.
- Melton, J. Gordon. The Vampire Book: The Encyclopedia of the Undead. Visible Ink Press, 2010.
